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“In his capacious work Major Aspects of Chinese Religion and Philosophy - Dao of Inner Saint and Outer King Shan Chun does not only explore the innate relations between Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism since their origins till its recent developments. By relating the three major traditions of Chinese philosophy he also attempts to concentrate the New-Confucianism on its unified origins and substantial implications by applying its inherent endeavour to relate and unite all spheres: these topics being the intimate relations between religion and philosophy, their inner and outer way (including the correlation between Confucian and Daoist legacies) as well as the unity between cosmos (heaven), country, state, society and family.”

Prof. Dr. Claudia Bickmann,

Professor of Philosophy, University of Cologne, Germany

“Masterful introduction to traditional Chinese ways of thinking, embodied in the “three teachings” of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.”

Albert Welter,

Professor of East Asian Religions, University of Winnipeg, Canada

“A valuable resource for those seeking a deeper understanding of Chinese philosophy and religion.”

Richard N. Stichler,

Professor of Philosophy, Alvernia University, USA

“This is a work that will satisfy both the curious non-specialist and the seasoned scholar in its treatment of a highly pertinent topic to the future of China, and not only its past.”

Rosita Dellios

Associate Professor of International Relations, Bond University, Australia

“A very revealing view of how a learned, serious Chinese intellectual understands the diverse riches to be found in the Chinese tradition. Attempting to cover virtually all of the Chinese philosophical and religious traditions and relate them to Western ideas, willing to pursue normative conclusions and discuss their applicability to modern life.”

Lee H. Yearley,

Walter Y. Evans-Wentz Professor, Religious Studies, Stanford University

Contents
Part I Inner Saint: Some Aspects of Chinese Religion
1 Chinese Faith Triangle: Confucianism, Daoism,
and Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Confucianism and Daoism in the Qin and Han Dynasties
(221 B.C.–220 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism in the Wei and
Jin Dynasties (220–589 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism in the Sui
and Tang Dynasties (581–907 A.D.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism in the Song
and Yuan Dynasties (960–1368 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Faith Triangle in the Ming and Qing
Dynasties (1368–1911 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 The Basic Spirit of Chinese Culture and National Faith. . . . . . . . 23
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Relation between Heaven and Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Sacred Faith Based on Family Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Kinship Expanded from Family to Country
and to Ecological World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Sacredness and Initiative of Human Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 The Definition of Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Intellectual Dilemma for Diversified Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Definitions of Modern Chinese Academics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Reflections from Chinese Intellectual Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
xv
4 A Hermeneutic Investigation into Heaven: The Key Concept
of Chinese Faith System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Heaven as Natural World Opposite to the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Religious Facets of Heaven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Political Facets of Heaven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Cultural Implications of Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 The Religious Commitment of Confucian Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Confucian Humaneness (ren) as the Ultimately Real . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Moral Facet in Blood Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Sanctity in Natural Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Religious Commitments Ensuring Social Ethics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 Religious Aspects of Daoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Daoism as Indigenous Religion in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The Journey of Religious Daoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
The Intellectual Clues and Aspects of Religious Daoism . . . . . . . . . 77
Ways of Becoming the Immortal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Way to Outer Pills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
The Way to Inner Pills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
The Way to Devour Cosmic Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Pith-Consolidating-Sex (fangzhongshu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Daoist Classic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
The Earliest Three Classics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
The Mainstay of the Daoist Classics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
To Understand Chinese Through Religious Daoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7 The Buddha Nature Theory and It’s Social Value . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Universality of Buddha Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Self-Awareness of Buddha Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Social Value of Buddha Nature in Chan Scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Philosophical Sense of Buddha Nature in Chan Buddhism . . . . . . . . 109
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8 Human Dignity Reflected in Confucianism and Daoism . . . . . . . . 115
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Human Dignity Observed in the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Human Dignity Observed in Chinese Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Narrow-Minded and Lofty-Minded Confucians . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Daoist Dao in Cultivating Humanistic Dignity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
xvi Contents
9 A Confucian Perspective on the Enlightenment and Religion . . . . 125
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
The Essential Features of the Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Religion Serving as Negative Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Religion Baptized in the Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Part II Outer King: Some Aspects of Chinese Philosophy
10 The Spirit of Chinese Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Bow Lost in the Universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Justifying One’s Life by Heavenly Mandate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Integration Between Heaven and Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Cosmos Mentality or Transcendent Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
11 A Brief Introduction to the New History
of Chinese Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Volume 1: The Pre-Qin Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Volume 2: The Making of Different Schools of Thought . . . . . . . . . 154
Volume 3: Confucianism Decreed as Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Volume 4: Neo-Daoism and Chinese Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Volume 5: Neo-Confucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Volume 6: Introduction of Western Scholarship and Eclipse
of Confucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Volume 7: Communist Ideology and Revival of Confucianism . . . . . 157
12 Daoism as Philosophy of Lao Zi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Dao as the Metaphysical Way in Chinese Faith System . . . . . . . . . . 159
Natural Harmony Revealed in Dao De Jing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Mercy Revealed in Harmonious Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Social Equity in Harmonious World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Benevolence in Harmonious World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Harmony in Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Merits in Reconciliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Peace as Mental Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Wisdom in Anticipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
13 Zhuang Zi’s Mentality of Cosmic Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Contents xvii
Zhuang Zi: His Works, Language, and Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
The Dao to Metaphysical Emptiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Dao in Daoist Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
One and Many . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Daoist Skepticism: Dao in Negative Affirmation . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Unified Identity for Diversified Cosmological Beings:
A Mystical World View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Air, the Cosmic Substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Formation of the Cosmos: Cosmic Air in Its
Restless Movements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Unified Identity: Absolute Relativity in Empirical World . . . . . . 176
Mentality of Cosmic Liberty: Spiritual Happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Nature and Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Spiritual Happiness: Humanistic Revelation from the Nature . . . 179
Social Value of the Daoist Cosmic Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Dao of Inner Saint and Outer King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Heavenly Dao and Human Dao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Dao of Inner Saint and Outer King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
The Impact of Zhuang Zi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
14 The Philosophical Aspects of Chinese Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Buddhist Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Buddhist Epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Value Orientation or Life Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
15 Chinese Cosmopolitanism (tianxia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Evolution of Chinese Cosmopolitanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Cosmopolitan Space in the Forms of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
The Ethical Contents of the Chinese Cosmopolitan Space. . . . . . . . . 207
The Importance of Chinese Cosmopolitan Space
to the Making of Chinese Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
16 Moral Happiness of Confucius and Yan Hui (kongyan lechu). . . . 213
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Happiness of Confucius and Yan Hui from Ethical Perspective . . . . . 213
Boundless Happiness Revealed in Natural World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Rational Happiness Realized in Subjective Conscience. . . . . . . . . . . 217
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
xviii Contents
17 Proprieties as Governmental Rules of Confucian Hermeneutics . . . 223
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Under Heaven: Cosmos With Political–Ethical Features . . . . . . . . . . 224
Proprieties (li) as Universal Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Filial Piety (xiao) as Family Norm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Loyalty (zhong) as Constitutional Norm for Country . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Loyalty as Political Norm for Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Righteousness (yi) as the-Norm-for International Relations . . . . . . . . 242
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
18 Moral Rights and Justification of Revolution:
Heart-Nature Theme of Mencius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Moral Rights Inherent in Human Beings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Moral Rights and Heart-Nature Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Moral Rights and Conscience Based on Heart-Nature. . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Violation of Moral Rights and Social Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
19 Political Personality Revealed in The Great
Learning (daxue). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
The Great Learning and Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
The Three Principles and Their Political-Ethical Explanation . . . . . . 283
Conscience of One: Political Personality
with Cosmic-Ethical Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Some Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
20 Natural Justice and Its Political Implications in The Doctrine
of the Mean (zhong yong) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Intellectual Backdrop of The Doctrine of the Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Rule of Cosmological Harmony (yun zhi jue zhong). . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Natural Justice Revealed in The Doctrine of the Mean . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Ideal Politics in the Rule of Saint King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Conclusion: Reflections on Political and Legal Philosophies
by Cosmic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Contents xix
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