Tables page xiii

Abstract xvii

Acknowledgments xix

1 Comparative Politics and Political Parties in Africa 1

Harbingers of Evil? Ethnic Parties and Democracy 2

International Party Assistance and Ethnic Parties 4

Fighting Ghosts? Political Science and African Parties 5

Filling in the Gaps 7

The Structure of the Book 8

2 A New Framework of Comparison for Political Parties 11

On the Study of Political Parties 12

Party Typologies in the Western World 12

Party Typologies Outside the Western World 18

Party Typologies in Eastern Europe, Latin America, and

Asia 20

Party Typologies in Africa 22

Toward a New Framework of Comparison 26

The Operationalization of the Amended Diamond and Gunther

Typology 30

Party Goals 31

Electoral Strategy 32

Organizational Structure 33

Social Base 34

Aggregation 37

Toward Empirical Research 38

Comparative Politics and the Diamond and Gunther Typology 41

3 Kenya: The Ubiquity of Ethnic Parties 43

One-Party Rule and the Rise of Ethnic Cleavage Lines 46

Observation Period 1 51

FORD-Kenya: The Enduring Logic of Ethnic Politics 51

FORD-Asili: The Prisoners of Dr. Kenneth Matiba 57

The Democratic Party: In the Shadows of GEMA 59

The Kenyan African National Union: Entering the

Democratic Age 61

Observation Period 2 67

FORD-Kenya: From Alliance to Mono-Ethnic Party 67

The National Development Party: FORD-K’s Former Luo

Wing 70

The Democratic Party: The Beneficiaries of FORD-A’s

Collapse 72

The Social Democratic Party: Toward Kamba Unity 73

The Kenyan African National Union 75

Observation Period 3 79

The National Alliance Rainbow Coalition 79

KANU, the Orange Democratic Movement–Kenya, and the

Orange Democratic Movement 88

Kenya After the 2007 Elections 93

Political Parties in Africa: Findings from Kenya 95

4 Namibia: The Dominance of Nonethnic Parties 100

Apartheid, Ethnic Cleavage Lines, and Political Parties 101

Observation Period 1 104

The Democratic Turnhalle Alliance and the Democratic

Age 105

The South West African People’s Organization 110

Observation Period 2 113

The Democratic Turnhalle Alliance Falls Apart 113

SWAPO Extending the SWAPO Kingdom 117

Observation Period 3 121

The Democratic Turnhalle Alliance and Its Disintegration 121

SWAPO: The Legacy of the Nujoma Succession 124

Observation Period 4 129

The Rise and Fall of the Congress of Democrats 130

SWAPO and Pohamba 133

Namibia After the 2009 Elections 135

Political Parties in Africa: Findings from Namibia 135

5 Ghana: The Ubiquity of Nonethnic Parties 140

The First Three Republics, Ethnic Cleavage Lines, and Political

Parties 141

Observation Period 1 143

The New Patriotic Party: In the Footsteps of the PP 144

The National Democratic Congress: A Dictator Elected 150

Observation Period 2 153

The New Patriotic Party: Generation Kufuor 153

The National Democratic Congress: A Dictator Reelected 157

Observation Period 3 159

The New Patriotic Party in Power 159

The National Democratic Congress Falling Apart 163

Observation Period 4 167

The New Patriotic Party in Its Second Term 167

The National Democratic Congress and Rawlings’ Long

Shadow 171

Ghana after the 2008 Elections 173

Political Parties in Africa: Findings from Ghana 175

6 The Diversity of African Party Politics 179

Political Parties in Kenya, Namibia, and Ghana 180

Variation Within Countries: Some Observations 183

African Parties and Political Ideology: Some Observations 186

Toward a New Framework of Comparison for African

Parties 187

Motive of Formation 188

Rhetoric 188

Electoral Rhetoric 188

Ideology/Manifesto Content 189

National Coverage 189

Party Factions 189

Party Apparatus 190

Leadership Composition 190

Cabinet Composition 190

Party Divergence Scores and Party Nationalization Scores 191

Verification of Results: Preliminary Evidence from Additional

Cases 192

Tanzania 193

The Chama Cha Mapinduzi 193

The Civic United Front 195

CHADEMA 196

Botswana 197

The Botswana Democratic Party 197

The Botswana National Front 198

Senegal 199

Parti Socialiste 200

The Parti D´emocratique S´en´egalais 201

Malawi 202

The Malawi Congress Party 203

The United Democratic Front 204

The Alliance for Democracy 206

The Democratic Progressive Party 207

Burkina Faso 208

The Congr`es pour le D´emocratie et le Progr`es 208

The Rassemblement D´emocratique Africain – l’Alliance pour

la D´emocratie et la F´ed´eration 209

Zambia 210

The Movement for Multiparty Democracy 210

The United National Independence Party 212

The Patriotic Front 213

Benin 214

The Parti Social-D´emocrate 215

The Parti du Renoveau D´emocratique 215

The Front d’Action pour le Renouveau et le D´eveloppement 217

Alliance pour une Dynamique D´emocratique, l’Union pour le

B´enin du Future, and Forces Cauris pour un B´enin

Emergent 218

Summary of the Preliminary Cases 218

Political Party Types in Africa 221

7 Explaining the Formation of Nonethnic Parties 223

Variance Between Countries 224

Economic Variables 224

Electoral Systems and Political Parties 234

Electoral Systems and Parties in Kenya, Ghana, and Namibia 235

Democracy and Political Parties 238

The Legal Dimension: Party Laws and Political Parties 240

Political Parties and the Type of Independence Movement 241

Ghana: The United Front 243

Kenya: Ethnic Disunity from the Start 246

Comparing African Independence Movements 248

Ethnic Fractionalization and Political Parties 250

Scenario 1: Balancing 252

Scenario 2: Bandwagoning 252

Core Groups and Political Parties: Empirical Evidence 253

Verification of Hypothesis with Preliminary Cases 255

Toward a Theory of the Formation of Ethnic Parties 259

Conclusion: Political Parties in Africa 261

The Emergence of Nonethnic Politics 261

African Political Parties: The Main Argument 262

African Parties and Democratic Consolidation 264

Future Research on (African) Parties 267

Strange Bedfellows: Academic Research and International Party

Assistance 269

Comparative Politics and African Parties 272

Annex A: Operationalization of Secondary Party Types 275

Annex B: The Standard MRG Coding Frame 276

Annex C: Number of Effective Programmatic Categories 280

Annex D: Summary of Party Nationalization Scores (PNS) and

Party Divergence Scores (PDS) 281

Annex E: Result for MRG Coding Scheme 284

Annex F: PNS Calculated on the Basis of Afrobarometer Data 285

Annex G: Scope of Party Systems Covered 287

Annex H: Party Nationalization Scores (PNS) of the Preliminary

Cases 288

Bibliography 291

Index 317