Chapter 1　Introduction to Microelectronics　1
1.1　Economic impact　1
1.2　Concepts and terminology　4
1.2.1　The Guinness book of records point of view　4
1.2.2　The marketing point of view　5
1.2.3　The fabrication point of view　6
1.2.4　The design engineer's point of view　10
1.2.5　The business point of view　17
1.3　Design flow in digital VLSI　18
1.3.1　The Y-chart, a map of digital electronic systems　18
1.3.2　Major stages in VLSI design　19
1.3.3　Cell libraries　28
1.3.4　Electronic design automation software　29
1.4　Field-programmable logic　30
1.4.1　Configuration technologies　30
1.4.2　Organization of hardware resources　32
1.4.3　Commercial products　35
1.5　Problems　37
1.6　Appendix I: A brief glossary of logic families　38
1.7　Appendix II: An illustrated glossary of circuit-related terms　40
Chapter 2　From Algorithms to Architectures　44
2.1　The goals of architecture design　44
2.1.1　Agenda　45
2.2　The architectural antipodes　45
2.2.1　What makes an algorithm suitable for a dedicated VLSI architecture?　50
2.2.2　There is plenty of land between the architectural antipodes　53
2.2.3　Assemblies of general-purpose and dedicated processing units　54
2.2.4　Coprocessors　55
2.2.5　Application-specific instruction set processors　55
2.2.6　Configurable computing　58
2.2.7　Extendable instruction set processors　59
2.2.8　Digest　60
2.3 A　transform approach to VLSI architecture design　61
2.3.1　There is room for remodelling in the algorithmic domain　 62
2.3.2　...and there is room in the architectural domain　64
2.3.3　Systems engineers and VLSI designers must collaborate　64
2.3.4　A graph-based formalism for describing processing algorithms　65
2.3.5　The isomorphic architecture　66
2.3.6　Relative merits of architectural alternatives　67
2.3.7　Computation cycle versus clock period　69
2.4　Equivalence transforms for combinational computations　70
2.4.1　Common assumptions　71
2.4.2　Iterative decomposition　72
2.4.3　Pipelining　75
2.4.4　Replication　79
2.4.5　Time sharing　81
2.4.6　Associativity transform　86
2.4.7　Other algebraic transforms　87
2.4.8　Digest　87
2.5　Options for temporary storage of data　89
2.5.1　Data access patterns　89
2.5.2　Available memory configurations and area occupation　89
2.5.3　Storage capacities　90
2.5.4　Wiring and the costs of going off-chip　91
2.5.5　Latency and timing　91
2.5.6　Digest　92
2.6　Equivalence transforms for nonrecursive computations　93
2.6.1　Retiming　94
2.6.2　Pipelining revisited　95
2.6.3　Systolic conversion　97
2.6.4　Iterative decomposition and time-sharing revisited　98
2.6.5　Replication revisited　98
2.6.6　Digest　99
2.7　Equivalence transforms for recursive computations　99
2.7.1　The feedback bottleneck　100
2.7.2　Unfolding of first-order loops　101
2.7.3　Higher-order loops　103
2.7.4　Time-variant loops　105
2.7.5　Nonlinear or general loops　106
2.7.6　Pipeline interleaving is not an equivalence transform　109
2.7.7　Digest　111
2.8　Generalizations of the transform approach　112
2.8.1　Generalization to other levels of detail　112
2.8.2　Bit-serial architectures　113
2.8.3　Distributed arithmetic　116
2.8.4　Generalization to other algebraic structures　118
2.8.5　Digest　121
2.9　Conclusions　122
2.9.1　Summary　122
2.9.2　The grand architectural alternatives from an energy point of view　124
2.9.3　A guide to evaluating architectural alternatives　126
2.10　Problems　128
2.11　Appendix I: A brief glossary of algebraic structures　130
2.12　Appendix II: Area and delay figures of VLSI subfunctions　133
Chapter 3　Functional Verification　136
3.1　How to establish valid functional specifications　137
3.1.1　Formal specification　138
3.1.2　Rapid prototyping　138
3.2　Developing an adequate simulation strategy　139
3.2.1　What does it take to uncover a design flaw during simulation?　139
3.2.2　Stimulation and response checking must occur automatically　140
3.2.3　Exhaustive verification remains an elusive goal　142
3.2.4　All partial verification techniques have their pitfalls　143
3.2.5　Collecting test cases from multiple sources helps　150
3.2.6　Assertion-based verification helps　150
3.2.7　Separating test development from circuit design helps　151
3.2.8　Virtual prototypes help to generate expected responses　153
3.3　Reusing the same functional gauge throughout the entire design cycle　153
3.3.1　Alternative ways to handle stimuli and expected responses　155
3.3.2　Modular testbench design　156
3.3.3　A well-defined schedule for stimuli and responses　156
3.3.4　Trimming run times by skipping redundant simulation sequences　159
3.3.5　Abstracting to higher-level transactions on higher-level data　160
3.3.6　Absorbing latency variations across multiple circuit models　164
3.4　Conclusions　166
3.5　Problems　168
3.6　Appendix I: Formal approaches to functional verification　170
3.7　Appendix II: Deriving a coherent schedule for simulation and test　171
Chapter 4　Modelling Hardware with VHDL　175
4.1　Motivation　175
4.1.1　Why hardware synthesis?　175
4.1.2　What are the alternatives to VHDL?　176
4.1.3　What are the origins and aspirations of the IEEE 1076 standard?　176
4.1.4　Why bother learning hardware description languages?　179
4.1.5　Agenda　180
4.2　Key concepts and constructs of VHDL　180
4.2.1　Circuit hierarchy and connectivity　181
4.2.2　Concurrent processes and process interaction　185
4.2.3　A discrete replacement for electrical signals　192
4.2.4　An event-based concept of time for governing simulation　200
4.2.5　Facilities for model parametrization　211
4.2.6　Concepts borrowed from programming languages　216
4.3　Putting VHDL to service for hardware synthesis　223
4.3.1　Synthesis overview　223
4.3.2　Data types　224
4.3.3　Registers, finite state machines, and other sequential subcircuits　225
4.3.4　RAMs, ROMs, and other macrocells　231
4.3.5　Circuits that must be controlled at the netlist level　233
4.3.6　Timing constraints　234
4.3.7　Limitations and caveats for synthesis　238
4.3.8　How to establish a register transfer-level model step by step　238
4.4　Putting VHDL to service for hardware simulation　242
4.4.1　Ingredients of digital simulation　242
4.4.2　Anatomy of a generic testbench　242
4.4.3　Adapting to a design problem at hand　245
4.4.4　The VITAL modelling standard IEEE 1076.4　245
4.5　Conclusions　247
4.6　Problems　248
4.7　Appendix I: Books and Web Pages on VHDL　250
4.8　Appendix II: Related extensions and standards　251
4.8.1　Protected shared variables IEEE 1076a　251
4.8.2　The analog and mixed-signal extension IEEE 1076.1　252
4.8.3　Mathematical packages for real and complex numbers IEEE 1076.2　253
4.8.4　The arithmetic packages IEEE 1076.3　254
4.8.5　A language subset earmarked for synthesis IEEE 1076.6　254
4.8.6　The standard delay format (SDF) IEEE 1497　254
4.8.7　A handy compilation of type conversion functions　255
4.9　Appendix III: Examples of VHDL models　256
4.9.1　Combinational circuit models　256
4.9.2　Mealy, Moore, and Medvedev machines　261
4.9.3　State reduction and state encoding　268
4.9.4　Simulation testbenches　270
4.9.5　Working with VHDL tools from different vendors　285
Chapter 5　The Case for Synchronous Design　286
5.1　Introduction　286
5.2　The grand alternatives for regulating state changes　287
5.2.1　Synchronous clocking　287
5.2.2　Asynchronous clocking　288
5.2.3　Self-timed clocking　288
5.3　Why a rigorous approach to clocking is essential in VLSI　290
5.3.1　The perils of hazards　290
5.3.2　The pros and cons of synchronous clocking　291
5.3.3　Clock-as-clock-can is not an option in VLSI　293
5.3.4　Fully self-timed clocking is not normally an option either　294
5.3.5　Hybrid approaches to system clocking　294
5.4　The dos and don’ts of synchronous circuit design　296
5.4.1　First guiding principle: Dissociate signal classes!　296
5.4.2　Second guiding principle: Allow circuits to settle before clocking!　298
5.4.3　Synchronous design rules at a more detailed level　298
5.5　Conclusions　306
5.6　Problems　306
5.7　Appendix: On identifying signals　307
5.7.1　Signal class　307
5.7.2　Active level　308
5.7.3　Signaling waveforms　309
5.7.4　Three-state capability 311
5.7.5　Inputs, outputs, and bidirectional terminals　311
5.7.6　Present state vs. next state　312
5.7.7　Syntactical conventions　312
5.7.8　A note on upper- and lower-case letters in VHDL　313
5.7.9　A note on the portability of names across EDA platforms　314
Chapter 6　Clocking of Synchronous Circuits　315
6.1　What is the difficulty in clock distribution?　315
6.1.1　Agenda　316
6.1.2　Timing quantities related to clock distribution　317
6.2　How much skew and jitter does a circuit tolerate?　317
6.2.1　Basics 317
6.2.2　Single-edge-triggered one-phase clocking　319
6.2.3　Dual-edge-triggered one-phase clocking　326
6.2.4　Symmetric level-sensitive two-phase clocking　327
6.2.5　Unsymmetric level-sensitive two-phase clocking　331
6.2.6　Single-wire level-sensitive two-phase clocking　334
6.2.7　Level-sensitive one-phase clocking and wave pipelining　336
6.3　How to keep clock skew within tight bounds　339
6.3.1　Clock waveforms　339
6.3.2　Collective clock buffers　340
6.3.3　Distributed clock buffer trees　343
6.3.4　Hybrid clock distribution networks　344
6.3.5　Clock skew analysis　345
6.4　How to achieve friendly input/output timing　346
6.4.1　Friendly as opposed to unfriendly I/O timing　346
6.4.2　Impact of clock distribution delay on I/O timing　347
6.4.3　Impact of PTV variations on I/O timing　349
6.4.4　Registered inputs and outputs　350
6.4.5　Adding artificial contamination delay to data inputs　350
6.4.6　Driving input registers from an early clock　351
6.4.7　Tapping a domain’s clock from the slowest component therein　351
6.4.8　“Zero-delay” clock distribution by way of a DLL or PLL　352
6.5　How to implement clock gating properly　353
6.5.1　Traditional feedback-type registers with enable　353
6.5.2　A crude and unsafe approach to clock gating　354
6.5.3　A simple clock gating scheme that may work under certain conditions　355
6.5.4　Safe clock gating schemes　355
6.6　Summary　357
6.7　Problems　361
Chapter 7　Acquisition of Asynchronous Data　364
7.1　Motivation　364
7.2　The data consistency problem of vectored acquisition　366
7.2.1　Plain bit-parallel synchronization　366
7.2.2　Unit-distance coding　367
7.2.3　Suppression of crossover patterns　368
7.2.4　Handshaking　369
7.2.5　Partial handshaking　371
7.3　The data consistency problem of scalar acquisition　373
7.3.1　No synchronization whatsoever　373
7.3.2　Synchronization at multiple places　373
7.3.3　Synchronization at a single place　373
7.3.4　Synchronization from a slow clock　374
7.4　Metastable synchronizer behavior　374
7.4.1　Marginal triggering and how it becomes manifest　374
7.4.2　Repercussions on circuit functioning　378
7.4.3　A statistical model for estimating synchronizer reliability　379
7.4.4　Plesiochronous interfaces　381
7.4.5　Containment of metastable behavior　381
7.5　Summary　384
7.6　Problems　384
Chapter 8　Gate- and Transistor-Level Design　386
8.1　CMOS logic gates　386
8.1.1　The MOSFET as a switch　387
8.1.2　The inverter　388
8.1.3　Simple CMOS gates　396
8.1.4　Composite or complex gates　399
8.1.5　Gates with high-impedance capabilities　403
8.1.6　Parity gates　406
8.1.7　Adder slices　407
8.2　CMOS bistables　409
8.2.1　Latches　410
8.2.2　Function latches　412
8.2.3　Single-edge-triggered flip-flops　413
8.2.4　The mother of all flip-flops　415
8.2.5　Dual-edge-triggered flip-flops　417
8.2.6　Digest　418
8.3　CMOS on-chip memories　418
8.3.1　Static RAM　418
8.3.2　Dynamic RAM　423
8.3.3　Other differences and commonalities　424
8.4　Electrical CMOS contraptions　425
8.4.1　Snapper　425
8.4.2　Schmitt trigger　426
8.4.3　Tie-off cells　427
8.4.4　Filler cell or fillcap　428
8.4.5　Level shifters and input/output buffers　429
8.4.6　Digitally adjustable delay lines　429
8.5　Pitfalls　430
8.5.1　Busses and three-state nodes　430
8.5.2　Transmission gates and other bidirectional components　434
8.5.3　What do we mean by safe design?　437
8.5.4　Microprocessor interface circuits　438
8.5.5　Mechanical contacts　440
8.5.6　Conclusions　440
8.6　Problems　442
8.7　Appendix I: Summary on electrical MOSFET models　445
8.7.1　Naming and counting conventions　445
8.7.2　The Sah model　446
8.7.3　The Shichman–Hodges model　450
8.7.4　The alpha-power-law model　450
8.7.5　Second-order effects　452
8.7.6　Effects not normally captured by transistor models　455
8.7.7　Conclusions　456
8.8　Appendix II: The Bipolar Junction Transistor　457
Chapter 9　Energy Efficiency and Heat Removal　459
9.1　What does energy get dissipated for in CMOS circuits?　459
9.1.1　Charging and discharging of capacitive loads　460
9.1.2　Crossover currents　465
9.1.3　Resistive loads　467
9.1.4　Leakage currents　468
9.1.5　Total energy dissipation　470
9.1.6　CMOS voltage scaling　471
9.2　How to improve energy efficiency　474
9.2.1　General guidelines　474
9.2.2　How to reduce dynamic dissipation　476
9.2.3　How to counteract leakage　482
9.3　Heat flow and heat removal　488
9.4　Appendix I: Contributions to node capacitance　490
9.5　Appendix II: Unorthodox approaches　491
9.5.1　Subthreshold logic　491
9.5.2　Voltage-swing-reduction techniques　492
9.5.3　Adiabatic logic　492
Chapter 10　Signal Integrity　495
10.1　Introduction　495
10.1.1　How does noise enter electronic circuits?　495
10.1.2　How does noise affect digital circuits?　496
10.1.3　Agenda　499
10.2　Crosstalk　499
10.3　Ground bounce and supply droop　499
10.3.1　Coupling mechanisms due to common series impedances　499
10.3.2　Where do large switching currents originate?　501
10.3.3　How severe is the impact of ground bounce?　501
10.4　How to mitigate ground bounce　504
10.4.1　Reduce effective series impedances　505
10.4.2　Separate polluters from potential victims　510
10.4.3　Avoid excessive switching currents　513
10.4.4　Safeguard noise margins　517
10.5　Conclusions　519
10.6　Problems　519
10.7　Appendix: Derivation of second-order approximation　521
Chapter 11　Physical Design　523
11.1　Agenda　523
11.2　Conducting layers and their characteristics　523
11.2.1　Geometric properties and layout rules　523
11.2.2　Electrical properties　527
11.2.3　Connecting between layers　527
11.2.4　Typical roles of conducting layers　529
11.3　Cell-based back-end design　531
11.3.1　Floorplanning　531
11.3.2　Identify major building blocks and clock domains　532
11.3.3　Establish a pin budget　533
11.3.4　Find a relative arrangement of all major building blocks　534
11.3.5　Plan power, clock, and signal distribution　535
11.3.6　Place and route (P&R)　538
11.3.7　Chip assembly　539
11.4　Packaging　540
11.4.1　Wafer sorting　543
11.4.2　Wafer testing　543
11.4.3　Backgrinding and singulation　544
11.4.4　Encapsulation　544
11.4.5　Final testing and binning　544
11.4.6　Bonding diagram and bonding rules　545
11.4.7　Advanced packaging techniques　546
11.4.8　Selecting a packaging technique　551
11.5　Layout at the detail level　551
11.5.1　Objectives of manual layout design　552
11.5.2　Layout design is no WYSIWYG business　552
11.5.3　Standard cell layout　556
11.5.4　Sea-of-gates macro layout　559
11.5.5　SRAM cell layout　559
11.5.6　Lithography-friendly layouts help improve fabrication yield　561
11.5.7　The mesh, a highly efficient and popular layout arrangement　562
11.6　Preventing electrical overstress　562
11.6.1　Electromigration　562
11.6.2　Electrostatic discharge　565
11.6.3　Latch-up　571
11.7　Problems　575
11.8　Appendix I: Geometric quantities advertized in VLSI　576
11.9　Appendix II: On coding diffusion areas in layout drawings　577
11.10　Appendix III: Sheet resistance　579
Chapter 12　Design Verification　581
12.1　Uncovering timing problems　581
12.1.1　What does simulation tell us about timing problems?　581
12.1.2　How does timing verification help?　585
12.2　How accurate are timing data?　587
12.2.1　Cell delays　588
12.2.2　Interconnect delays and layout parasitics　593
12.2.3　Making realistic assumptions is the point　597
12.3　More static verification techniques　598
12.3.1　Electrical rule check　598
12.3.2　Code inspection　599
12.4　Post-layout design verification　601
12.4.1　Design rule check　602
12.4.2　Manufacturability analysis　604
12.4.3　Layout extraction　605
12.4.4　Layout versus schematic　605
12.4.5　Equivalence checking 606
12.4.6　Post-layout timing verification　606
12.4.7　Power grid analysis　607
12.4.8　Signal integrity analysis　607
12.4.9　Post-layout simulations　607
12.4.10　The overall picture　607
12.5　Conclusions　608
12.6　Problems　609
12.7　Appendix I: Cell and library characterization　611
12.8　Appendix II: Equivalent circuits for interconnect modelling　612
Chapter 13　VLSI Economics and Project Management　615
13.1　Agenda　615
13.2　Models of industrial cooperation　617
13.2.1　Systems assembled from standard parts exclusively　617
13.2.2　Systems built around program-controlled processors　618
13.2.3　Systems designed on the basis of field-programmable logic　619
13.2.4　Systems designed on the basis of semi-custom ASICs　620
13.2.5　Systems designed on the basis of full-custom ASICs　622
13.3　Interfacing within the ASIC industry　623
13.3.1　Handoff points for IC design data　623
13.3.2　Scopes of IC manufacturing services　624
13.4　Virtual components　627
13.4.1　Copyright protection vs. customer information　627
13.4.2　Design reuse demands better quality and more thorough verification　628
13.4.3　Many existing virtual components need to be reworked　629
13.4.4　Virtual components require follow-up services　629
13.4.5　Indemnification provisions　630
13.4.6　Deliverables of a comprehensive VC package　630
13.4.7　Business models　631
13.5　The costs of integrated circuits　632
13.5.1　The impact of circuit size　633
13.5.2　The impact of the fabrication process　636
13.5.3　The impact of volume　638
13.5.4　The impact of configurability　639
13.5.5　Digest　640
13.6　Fabrication avenues for small quantities　642
13.6.1　Multi-project wafers　642
13.6.2　Multi-layer reticles　643
13.6.3　Electron beam lithography　643
13.6.4　Laser programming　643
13.6.5　Hardwired FPGAs and structured ASICs　644
13.6.6　Cost trading　644
13.7　The market side　645
13.7.1　Ingredients of commercial success　645
13.7.2　Commercialization stages and market priorities　646
13.7.3　Service versus product　649
13.7.4　Product grading　650
13.8　Making a choice　651
13.8.1　ASICs yes or no?　651
13.8.2　Which implementation technique should one adopt?　655
13.8.3　What if nothing is known for sure?　657
13.8.4　Can system houses afford to ignore microelectronics?　658
13.9　Keys to successful VLSI design　660
13.9.1　Project definition and marketing　660
13.9.2　Technical management　661
13.9.3　Engineering　662
13.9.4　Verification　665
13.9.5　Myths　665
13.10　Appendix: Doing business in microelectronics　667
13.10.1　Checklists for evaluating business partners and design kits　667
13.10.2　Virtual component providers　669
13.10.3　Selected low-volume providers　669
13.10.4　Cost estimation helps　669
Chapter 14　A Primer on CMOS Technology　671
14.1　The essence of MOS device physics　671
14.1.1　Energy bands and electrical conduction　671
14.1.2　Doping of semiconductor materials　672
14.1.3　Junctions, contacts, and diodes　674
14.1.4　MOSFETs　676
14.2　Basic CMOS fabrication flow　682
14.2.1　Key characteristics of CMOS technology　682
14.2.2　Front-end-of-line fabrication steps　685
14.2.3　Back-end-of-line fabrication steps　688
14.2.4　Process monitoring　689
14.2.5　Photolithography　689
14.3　Variations on the theme　697
14.3.1　Copper has replaced aluminum as interconnect material　697
14.3.2　Low-permittivity interlevel dielectrics are replacing silicon dioxide　698
14.3.3　High-permittivity gate dielectrics to replace silicon dioxide　699
14.3.4　Strained silicon and SiGe technology　701
14.3.5　Metal gates bound to come back　702
14.3.6　Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology　703
Chapter 15　Outlook　706
15.1　Evolution paths for CMOS technology　706
15.1.1　Classic device scaling　706
15.1.2　The search for new device topologies　709
15.1.3　Vertical integration　711
15.1.4　The search for better semiconductor materials　712
15.2　Is there life after CMOS?　714
15.2.1　Non-CMOS data storage　715
15.2.2　Non-CMOS data processing　716
15.3　Technology push　719
15.3.1　The so-called industry “laws” and the forces behind them　719
15.3.2　Industrial roadmaps　721
15.4　Market pull　723
15.5　Evolution paths for design methodology　724
15.5.1　The productivity problem　724
15.5.2　Fresh approaches to architecture design　727
15.6　Summary　729
15.7　Six grand challenges　730
15.8　Appendix: Non-semiconductor storage technologies for comparison　731
Appendix A　Elementary Digital Electronics　732
A.1　Introduction　732
A.1.1　Common number representation schemes　732
A.1.2　Notational conventions for two-valued logic　734
A.2　Theoretical background of combinational logic　735
A.2.1　Truth table　735
A.2.2　The n-cube　736
A.2.3　Karnaugh map　736
A.2.4　Program code and other formal languages　736
A.2.5　Logic equations　737
A.2.6　Two-level logic　738
A.2.7　Multilevel logic 740
A.2.8　Symmetric and monotone functions　741
A.2.9　Threshold functions　741
A.2.10　Complete gate sets　742
A.2.11　Multi-output functions　742
A.2.12　Logic minimization　743
A.3　Circuit alternatives for implementing combinational logic　747
A.3.1　Random logic　747
A.3.2　Programmable logic array (PLA)　747
A.3.3　Read-only memory (ROM)　749
A.3.4　Array multiplier　749
A.3.5　Digest　750
A.4　Bistables and other memory circuits　751
A.4.1　Flip-flops or edge-triggered bistables　752
A.4.2　Latches or level-sensitive bistables　755
A.4.3　Unclocked bistables　756
A.4.4　Random access memories (RAMs)　760
A.5　Transient behavior of logic circuits　761
A.5.1　Glitches, a phenomenological perspective　762
A.5.2　Function hazards, a circuit-independent mechanism　763
A.5.3　Logic hazards, a circuit-dependent mechanism　764
A.5.4　Digest　765
A.6　Timing quantities　766
A.6.1　Delay quantities apply to combinational and sequential circuits　766
A.6.2　Timing conditions apply to sequential circuits only　768
A.6.3　Secondary timing quantities　770
A.6.4　Timing constraints address synthesis needs　771
A.7　Microprocessor input/output transfer protocols　771
A.8　Summary　773
Appendix B　Finite State Machines　775
B.1　Abstract automata　775
B.1.1　Mealy machine　776
B.1.2　Moore machine　777
B.1.3　Medvedev machine　778
B.1.4　Relationships between finite state machine models　779
B.1.5　Taxonomy of finite state machines　782
B.1.6　State reduction　783
B.2　Practical aspects and implementation issues　785
B.2.1　Parasitic states and symbols　785
B.2.2　Mealy-, Moore-, Medvedev-type, and combinational output bits　787
B.2.3　Through paths and logic instability　787
B.2.4　Switching hazards　789
B.2.5　Hardware costs　790
B.3　Summary　793
Appendix C　VLSI Designer’s Checklist　794
C.1　Design data sanity　794
C.2　Pre-synthesis design verification　794
C.3　Clocking　795
C.4　Gate-level considerations　796
C.5　Design for test　797
C.6　Electrical considerations　798
C.7　Pre-layout design verification　799
C.8　Physical considerations　800
C.9　Post-layout design verification　800
C.10　Preparation for testing of fabricated prototypes　801
C.11　Thermal considerations　802
C.12　Board-level operation and testing　802
C.13　Documentation　802
Appendix D　Symbols and constants　804
D.1　Mathematical symbols used　804
D.2　Abbreviations　807
D.3　Physical and material constants　808
References　811
Index　832
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