Preface

1. Ant-Plant Interactions
The Origin and Early Evolution of Ant-Plant Associations
Phylogenetic Associations
A Brief History of the Associations
Coevolution and Interspecific Interactions

2. Antagonistic Interactions: Leaf-Cutting and Seed-Harvesting Ants
Leaf-Cutting Ants (Grazing)
Seed-Harvesting Ants (Predation)

3. Mutualism from Antagonism: Ants as Primary Seed-Dispersers
The Reward: Elaiosomes
Seed Dispersal by Ants
Myrmecochory: Distribution and Significance Worldwide
Conclusion

Appendix 3.1. Myrmecochory in Eastern North America, Japan, and Europe
Appendix 3.2. Myrmecochory in Australia and South Africa
Appendix 3.3. Myrmecochory in the Neotropics

4. Mutualism from Opportunism: Ants as Secondary Seed-Dispersers
The Reward: Fallen Fleshy Diaspores
Diaspore Attributes and Patterns of Ant Attendance
Ant Effects on Seeds and Seedlings
Directed Dispersal of Seeds by Ponerine Ants
Prospect

5. Mutualism from Antagonism: Ants and Flowers
Pollination by Ants
Discouragement of Floral Visits by Ants

Appendix 5.1. Plant Species in Which Ant Pollination Has Been Demonstrated

6. Antagonism and Mutualism: Direct Interactions
The Pseudomyrmex-Acacia Association
Ants, Plants, and Food Bodies
Ant-Inhabited Plants Offering No Direct Food Rewards
Ants, Plants, and Extrafloral Nectaries
Plant Defensive Strategies and Induced Responses
The Nature of the Associations and the Importance of Conditionality
Topics for Future Consideration

Appendix 6.1. Flowering Plants That Maintain a Nonsymbiotic Relationship with Ants

7. Antagonism and Mutualism: Indirect Interactions
Ants, Plants, and Hemipterans
Variable Outcomes in Ant-Hemipteran Systems
The Effect of Ant-Hemiptera Interactions on Host Plants
Ant-Hemiptera Associations and the Evolution of Extrafloral Nectaries

8. Nutrition of Plants by Ant Mutualists: Life History of Ant-Fed Plants and Ant-Garden Systems
Ant-Fed Plants
Ant Gardens
Conclusion

Appendix 8.1. Ant-Fed Plants That Absorb Nutrients from Ant Debris

9. Canopy-Dwelling Ants, Plant and Insect Exudates, and Ant Mosaics
Canopy Ants: Main Features and Trophic Role
The Competitive Environment
Ant Mosaics
Plant and Insect Exudates and Ant Community Structure
The Effect of Trophobiont Tenders on Associated Herbivores and on the Host Plant

10. Variation in Ant-Plant Interactions
Temporal Variation
Spatial Variation

Appendix 10.1. Plants with Extrafloral Nectaries
Appendix 10.2. Ant Species Using Plant-Derived Food Resources

11. Ant-Plant Interactions in Agriculture
Agricultural Systems, Herbivores, and Ants
Ants as Biological Control Agents
Case Studies
Biological Control and Interspecific Interactions

12. Overview and Perspectives

Literature Cited

Index
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